Abstract

Distilled spirits and the industry they support have always been subject to heavy taxation. Not only has it been an excellent source of revenue for many governments throughout the world, but high taxes can also be rationalized as having an inhibitory effect on consumption. The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF), established in 1972, and the Department of the Treasury closely regulate the manufacture of distilled spirits. Each country has established standards for its various types of distilled beverages, and countries mutually respect each other's alcoholic beverage standards. U.S. Standards of Identity are given by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF). Within each type of distilled spirits, wide variations of flavor can be achieved by the type and amount of starting grains or other fermentable materials, methods of preparation, types of yeasts, fermentation conditions, distillation process, maturation time and temperature, blending, and use of new technologies such as membrane separation. The flavor and aroma of distilled spirits are derived primarily from minor constituents called congeners that are produced and augmented in the fermentation and maturation processes. Congeners include fusel oil, total acids (as acetic acid), esters (as ethyl acetate), aldehydes (as acetaldehyde), furfural, total solids, tannins, and color. By government regulation, Canadian whiskeys contain no distilled spirits less than three years old. They are often up to six years of age. Canadian whisky tends to be light bodied and delicate in flavor. As in the United States, Canadians use corn, rye, and barley malt. Their process is essentially the same as the one used by many distilleries in the United States. Distillers operate their systems for optimum separation and congener concentration. The Scotch Association Council approved a new, tighter definition for Scotch whiskey in 1988. The single malt Scotch or malt Scotch, which has recently become popular in the United States, is made from a mash of only malted barley. Single malts are usually darker with heavier flavor than blended Scotches. Irish whiskeys are blends of grain and malt spirits three or more years of age that are produced in either the Republic of Ireland or Northern Ireland. Irish whiskey lacks the smokey character of Scotch. The manufacture of distilled spirits in the United States is tightly controlled by ATF regulations. Distilled beverages are classified according to type, materials, composition, distillation and maturation proofs, types of barrels, and maturation time, as whiskey, neutral spirits, grain spirits, vodka, light whiskey, Bourbon, corn whiskey, straight whiskey, blended whiskey, and Tennessee whiskey. U.S. regulations define two types of gin: distilled gin and compounded gin. Other types of spirits include brandy, rum, tequila, and cordials and liqueurs. Ethyl alcohol, is produced by the fermentation of materials containing sugar or substances convertible to sugar, such as starches and fruit processing residues. Cereal grains are usually used in the production of beverage distilled spirits. Beverage alcohol is always ethyl alcohol. Higher alcohols may be present in distilled spirits and are referred to as fusel oils or by specific name. Composition of grains varies considerably and depends on such factors as climate, soil, and hybrid variety. Another variable is the malt; it is generally germinated barley, though rye malt or wheat malt can be used. The malting process develops the active enzymes (amylases) in the grain that convert grain starch into dextrins and then to maltose, a fermentable sugar. Milling is usually accomplished by two methods: hammer mills or cage mills. The mashing process consists of cooking the starch (gelatinization) and converting it (saccharification) to grain sugar (maltose). Primary conversion refers to the saccharification. The remainder of the conversion to fermentable sugar takes place during the fermentation process and is referred to as secondary conversion. Selected yeast strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae are used to inoculate the mash. Yeast metabolizes maltose and glucose sugars via the Embden-Meyerhof pathway to pyruvate, and via acetaldehyde to ethanol. All distillers' yeast strains can be expected to produce 6% (v/v) ethanol from a mash containing 11% (w/v) starch. Secondary products (congeners) arise during fermentation and are retained in the distillation of whiskey. Distillation separates and concentrates the alcoholic products of yeast fermentation from the fermented grain mash. After the removal of alcohol, the fermentation residues are processed to produce distillers grains. These residues consist of proteins, fats, minerals, vitamins, and fiber that are concentrated threefold by removal of the starch. The oak barrels used for aging distilled spirits play a significant role in determining the final aroma and flavor of the beverage. In November 1985, the Canadian Government indicated that it had detected ethyl carbamate (urethane), a suspected carcinogen, in some wines and distilled spirits. Since that time, the U.S. distilled spirits industry has mounted a serious effort to monitor and reduce the amount of ethyl carbamate (EC) in its products. The FDA accepted a plan in 1987 from the Distilled Spirits Council of the United States (DISCUS) to reduce ethyl carbamate in whiskey to 125 ppb or less. Packaging for distilled spirits intended for domestic distribution is regulated by the Federal Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms. This strict supervision establishes acceptable container size, labeling, and sealing requirements, as well as guidelines for the disclosure of information on the shipping container. Many beverage alcohol products depend heavily on the addition of compounded flavors, distillates, percolates, and extracts to carry the organoleptic profile of the product. Cordials, liquors, and schnapps at various proofs, such as crème de cacao, peppermint schnapps, fruit-flavored cordials and schnapps, and spirit coolers are examples.