Abstract

Analytical X-ray instruments are used to characterize materials in several ways. There are analytical instruments that can produce images of the internal structure of objects that are opaque to visible light. There are instruments used to determine chemical composition of an object, the crystalline phases of solids, and the complete atomic and molecular structure of a single crystal. The determination of particle size, structural information for fibers and polymers and the study of stress, texture, and thin films are applications that are growing in importance and can be examined with X-ray instruments. This article gives information on the characterization, generation, and properties of X-Rays, and principles of X-ray diffraction. Small molecule and macromolecule single-crystal structure determinations are discussed. These techniques are compared with powder diffraction. X-ray reflectometers, position sensitive detectors, and area detectors are some of the special instruments designed to measure properties of the new and exotic materials being manufactured. Details on X-ray fluorescence spectrometry and X-ray radiography are also given.